It is in these societies that the policing organisations have trouble controlling the abuse of drugs. But as mentioned before, the individual or group may seek to rationalize their behaviour, thus avoiding the prospect of self labelling. There is however no scientific study on the effects of the above factors. Criminology, 28(2), 183-206. Tannenbaum (1938) is widely regarded as the first labelling theorist. By telling your employer that, you're letting them know you lack self-reflection. Sutherland, E. H., Cressey, D. R., & Luckenbill, D. F. (1992). As the labelling theory states, the first is the audience learning about the act that is considered criminal and not the act itself. The labeling of convicted felons and its consequences for recidivism. Social bonding theory, first developed by Travis Hirschi, asserts that people who have strong attachments to conventional society (for example, involvement, investment, and belief) are less likely to be deviant than those with weak bonds to conventional society (Chriss, 2007). Thus we see that labelling though introduced to help society and make it a better place can actually make it worse. Shows that the Law is not a fixed set of rules to be taken for granted, but something whose construction we need to explain. if(typeof ez_ad_units!='undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[580,400],'simplypsychology_org-leader-1','ezslot_11',142,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-simplypsychology_org-leader-1-0'); The consequences of labeling on subsequent delinquency are dependent on the larger cultural context of where the delinquency happens. Firstly, according to Wellford (1975) the theory states that no acts are inherently criminal, and states that acts are only criminal when society considers them to be so. He said that there are no different types of the mentally ill with just one type who conform to what society has labelled them to be. It fails to explain why people commit primary deviance in the first place before they are labeled. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1997). In the future the mindset of society may change and acts that were previously considered to be criminal may be legalised. can t use carpenter's workbench skyrim; how long does it take a rat to starve to death; cowboy hat making supplies; why would i get a letter from circuit clerk This theory is widely credited to be the forerunner of the present day labelling theory. Those are, no acts are inherently criminal, there can be a process of self-labelling, it covers or is supposed to cover all criminal activity, depends on the members of the society or those that do the labelling and finally it depends on the personality of the individual. Firstly, labeling can cause rejection from non-deviant peers. In a similar vein, recidivism was also higher among partners in unmarried couples than those in married couples, unrestricted by the conventional bond of marriage. Strengths of the interactionist theory of crime. You should not treat any information in this essay as being authoritative. Strengths of the Labeling Theory Those who support the theory see its strengths in: Making it easier to understand deviant behavior. This is due to the fact that people with low self esteem or a different/weak personality trait takes these drugs to show that they can handle it and want to rebel against society. He would not label himself as a criminal as it was a necessary for him to do so. Criminology, 45(3), 547-581. However, when those who were arrested were employed, the arrest had a deterrent effect (Bernburg, 2009). It also attempts to understand how and why labelling has such a powerful impact on the rest of society. ideas on labelling theory by defining the meaning of deviance, demonstrating its usefulness. Some studies found that being officially labeled a criminal (e.g. He said that people are said to be mentally ill, when they display behaviour that makes them to be so. Labeling Theory in Criminology and Sociology, 9 Trends In Hardware and Software to Bring You Up to Speed, Crime and Community by Frank Tannenbaum (1938), Social Pathology, New York: McGraw-Hill By Erwin Lemert (1951), Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, New York: The Free Press of Glencoe By Howard Becker (1963), The Colonizer and the Colonized by Albert Memmi (1965), Criminology, New York (8th edition) by J.B. Lippincott (1970), Human Deviance, Social Problems and Social Control (2nd edition) by Edwin Lemert (1972), Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Sentencing in the Juvenile Justice System: Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology by Austin Turk (1973), Labeling Theory and Criminology: An Assessment by Charles Wellford (1975), Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs by Paul Willis (1977), Criminology: Theory and Context Essex: Pearson Education Limited (2nd edition) by John Tierney (2006), Criminology, London: OUP Oxford by Stephen Jones (2009), Labeling Theory and Life Stories of Juvenile Delinquents Transitioning Into Adulthood by Prince Boamah Abrah, DOI.Org (2018). This essay will go on to show the origins of labelling theory, the theory itself and will show its strengths and weaknesses using various case-studies and examples. American Sociological Review, 202-215. *You can also browse our support articles here >. This approach to delinquency from the perspective of role-taking stems from Briar and Piliavin (1965), who found that boys who are uncommitted to conventional structures for action can be incited into delinquency by other boys. According to him, society then places certain behavioural expectations on the individual and the individual subconsciously changes his behaviour to suit the expectations of society. An example would be drugs. In 1981 and 1982, the Minneapolis Police Department conducted an experiment to determine the effect of arresting domestic violence suspects on subsequent behavior (Sherman and Berk, 1984). This part of the labelling theory has many policy implications. Sociologists generally agree that deviant labels are also stigmatizing labels (Bernburg, 2009). In these societies we see limited drug use and little or no overdoses and or drug abuse. Children of those tribes that placed a very high emphasis on storytelling were often brought up in a culture that placed a high value on not stuttering and having good oratory skills. 220-254): Springer. Disadvantages. It shows that the law is often enforced in discriminatory ways. Classic studies on teacher labelling in education Sch. 806 8067 22, Registered office: International House, Queens Road, Brighton, BN1 3XE, evaluation of labelling theory - negatives, Interactionist Theories on Social Class and Crime. Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 31(4), 416-433. var domainroot="www.simplypsychology.org" Carter, M. J., & Fuller, C. (2016). Grove said that society has no influence whatsoever on mental illness. He said that in tribes where good oratory skills were not expected, there was no negative reaction and hence there was no deviance of the above type. It becomes so extreme that it becomes their one and only status. Scheff said that mental ill was the product of societal influence, going against the common perceptions of the time. Book. Delinquency, situational inducements, and commitment to conformity. Info: 2729 words (11 pages) Essay Once they start to believe in their negative labels, self rejection occurs which plays a major role in the social rejection theory. An example would be a person stealing to satisfy his hunger. Deterrence theory states that whether or not someone commits an act of deviance is determined largely by the costs and benefits of committing a crime versus the threat of punishment. The Sociological Quarterly, 48(4), 689-712. Fourthly, it matters on who the audience is comprised of, as the level of denouncement an individual feels depends on the audiences reaction to the act. Panimpex Ltd, 25 Martiou, 27, D. Michael Tower, office 105A, Egkomi, 2408, Nicosia, Cyprus, Labeling Theory Overview: Definition and Authors. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1995). Labelling theory however has many inherent drawbacks. Misunderstanding labelling perspectives in key readings in criminology (ed Newburn, T) pgs 220-223. Official labeling, criminal embeddedness, and subsequent delinquency: A longitudinal test of labeling theory. It was through his work as a musician Becker first became exposed to drug culture, which he would later study. Thus we can say that labelling does have a profound effect but has yet to be shown that it was labelling that caused the illness in the first place. It is those that in power choose to classify actions as such through law-making. These sociologists define stigma as a series of specific, negative perceptions and stereotypes attached to a label (Link and Pelan, 2001), which can be evident in and transmitted by mass-media or the everyday interactions people have between themselves. The first one mentions that murder, arson and so on are all criminal in most of the nations and societies. This means that this research tended to ignore the effects of there being some formal reaction versus there being no formal reaction to labeling (Bernburg, 2009). Thus, those labeled as deviant would want to seek relationships with those who also have a deviant self-concept. This is the precursor to the social reaction or labeling theory which has present day acceptance and includes many of the same concepts. They mention that the above mentioned factors can either enhance or mitigate the effects of labelling theory. Howard Becker is an American sociologist who produced Outsiders in 1963 that talks about the Sociology of Deviance. Official labeling, criminal embeddedness, and subsequent delinquency: A longitudinal test of labeling theory. This manifests both on the societal and individual level. The most frequent use would be recreational. For example, the teachers and staff at a school can label a child as a troublemaker and treat him as such (through detention and so fourth). According to Lemert, the primary deviance phase begins with a criminal act. Mind, self and society (Vol. Further arguments about the use of labels have included that they lead to a wider and better understanding of certain needs that children may have, and thus there is more tolerance, and less. For example, some can explain juvenile delinquency as an aftermath of negative connotations to events or words that are usually seen in a positive light. Learn How to Order Essay Online. Soc. The smoking of marijuana is another example, although it is illegal in most of the societies and nations it is now slowly being tolerated in some and even being legalised in others. This was due to the fact the these people had low self esteem and by doing something that brings them close to the edge makes them feel like a rebel. Formal labels are labels ascribed to an individual by someone who has the formal status and ability to discern deviant behavior. By clicking Proceed, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy. Other theorists, such as Sampson and Laub (1990) have examined labeling theory in the context of social bonding theory. That is not a drawback but merely a statement of facts. Get Revising is one of the trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. Register Number: 04666380 (England and Wales), VAT No. It emphasizes the negative effects of labeling gives the offender a kind of victim status. Lemert concluded that the pressure placed on the members of the tribe to have good skills and the subsequent mockery and social exclusion if they didnt posses the oratory skills led to the development of stuttering. One of the most important approaches to understanding the nature of crime is called the labeling theory. Copyright Get Revising 2023 all rights reserved. In The long view of crime: A synthesis of longitudinal research (pp. Hagen (1973) brings about the concept of self-labelling, in which he states the example of a murderer who has avoided all suspicion (the act is not criminal if no one is around to witness it or label him). The Functions of the Social Bond. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Strengths Results can be reliably reproduced. I am interested in labeling theory. Other tribes however had no mention of stuttering in their language and had no members of their tribes stuttering. Plummer, K (1979). American Sociological Review, 609-627. (2002). Get Revising is one of the trading names of The Student Room Group Ltd. Register Number: 04666380 (England and Wales), VAT No. But if the juvenile has a bad relationship with his family, home changes its meaning altogether. The first phase is known as the Primary deviance phase. Yet for the last 6 years, I've worked mainly in marketing. Noting this discrepancy, Sherman and Smith (1992) aimed to examine the effect of arrest for domestic violence on subsequent violence and found that arrest for domestic violence increased the likelihood for subsequent arrest for domestic violence, but only in cases where the perpetrator was unemployed. If I'm on a project, I'm going to make sure to stick with it to the bitter, bloody end." Although this might sound like a strength, it's actually a weakness in disguise! Labeling theory is an approach in the sociology of deviance that focuses on the ways in which the agents of social control attach stigmatizing stereotypes to particular groups, and the ways in which the stigmatized change their behavior once labeled. The community will despise them, and they can even resort to shaming. Different audiences may have different reactions to a crime and thus the punishment and the labelling will vary even though the same crime is being committed. There have been studies to show how after being diagnosed with a mental illness labelling has taken an effect, such as not being offered houses and jobs, but there is very little to show that labelling was the cause of mental illness in the first place. Ian and Christian are males who love each other and want to get married. Overview of Labelling Theories, www. Labelling theory supports the idea of radical non-interventionism, in which policy dictates that certain acts are decriminalised and the removal of the social stigmata surrounding the acts. Thomas Scheff (1966) published Being Mentally Ill, was the first instance of labelling theory being applied to the term of Mentally Ill. Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). The past 20 years have brought significant attempts to improve the methodology of labeling theory research. The role of arrest in domestic assault: The Omaha police experiment. Criticism in the 1970s undermined the popularity of labeling theory. This is very perfect information and clear explanation of the basics, thank you! The object of whether a person views himself or herself as a criminal is what differentiates between the primary and secondary deviant phases. When individuals have little social support from conventional society, they can turn to deviant groups, where having a deviant label is accepted. Marshall and Purdy (1972) stated that the studies conducted reflected actual behavioural differences that were reacted to differently by different people. We can thus conclude that labelling theory does have an effect, but is not the primary cause for most of the acts committed. Marshall and Purdy (1972) stated that the studies conducted reflected actual behavioural differences that were reacted to differently by different people. This is caused by a transaction, where someone projects themselves into the role of another and seeing if the behavior associated with that role suits their situation (Mead, 1934). This interactionist perspective helps criminologists understand an individuals actions and reactions. Howard There was little consistent empirical evidence for labeling theory (the evidence that did exist was methodologically flawed), and critics believed that labeling theory was vague, simplistic and ideologically motivated. Tannenbaum (1938) is widely regarded as the first labelling theorist. Erwin Lamert (1951) founded the societal Reaction theory. They would be able to smoke it at one time and at others, they wont be able to. Secondly is the process of self-labelling. Weaknesses of Fraud's theory. Teachers were observed to make a working hypothesis about the student. This is the most debated part of the labelling theory brought about by him. Those who critic this theory say that the labeling theory: Mental health has been in the limelight in recent events as people realized its importance, creating a more welcoming attitude by the family members, friends, and employers to the labeled individual whos suffering from mental disorders. American Journal of Sociology. As a result, those from lower-classes and minority communities are more likely to be labeled as criminals than others, and members of these groups are likely to be seen by others as associated with criminality and deviance, regardless of whether or not they have been formally labeled as a criminal. Now what about the important of labeling theory to a teacher and what are the strength and weakness in the classroom to the learners? Those who are labeled as troublemakers take on the role of trouble makers because others projections onto them present delinquency as an option. These are dependent upon the interpretation of those who enact those laws, like the courts and the police. As the labelling theory states, the first is the audience learning about the act that is considered criminal and not the act itself. This essay will go on to show the origins of labelling theory, the theory itself and will show its strengths and weaknesses using various case-studies and examples. This research is unique in that it examines informal labeling the effects of how other people look at an adolescent have on that adolescents behavior. Early in the century, authorities labelled it criminal and illegal. The community where they live is likely to support and treat it as any other marriage. Intervention may make things worse. Therefore Becker says that personal motives and the influence by society has nothing to do with criminal behaviour. On the meaning and measurement of suspects' demeanor toward the police: A comment on Demeanor and Arrest. Consistent with labeling theory, children whose parents see them as someone who gets into trouble or breaks rules and children who feel as if their friends, parents, and teachers see them as someone who gets into trouble or breaks rules tend to have higher levels of subsequent delinquency. When someones labeled a criminal, he slowly thinks of himself as such and is likely to continue his criminal behavior. This is summed up by differential association theory (Sutherland and Cressey, 1992), which states that being able to associate and interact with deviant people more easily leads to the transference of deviant attitudes and behaviors between those in the group, leading to further deviance. This can cause problems. Zhang (1994a) examined the effects of the severity of the official punishment of delinquency on the probability that youths were estranged from parents, relatives, friends, and neighbors in the city of Tianjin, China. on their weaknesses. In the heavily collectivist, family-centered Chinese culture, those who were labeled as deviant were significantly more likely to be rejected by friends and neighbors than parents and relatives (Zhang, 1994a). The first phase is known as the Primary deviance phase. Briar, S., & Piliavin, I. Becker, H. (1963). Lemert (1967) brought out the connection between social reaction and deviance through his studies and research of a number of Indian tribes in British Columbia. Coming from a research background in biology and archeology, Charlotte currently studies how digital and physical space shapes human beliefs, norms, and behaviors and how this can be used to create businesses with greater social impact. Thus the quality of deviance does not reside in the behaviour itself, but is rather the outcome of responses to that behaviour by various social audiences (Tierney). It is this latter form of deviance that enabled Labeling theory to gain such immense popularity in the 1960's, forcing criminologists to reconsider how large a part 140-153. In Handbook on crime and deviance (pp. But now, homosexuality is an accepted fact in society and there are little or fewer stigmas and or labelling attached to it. As those labeled as deviants experience more social interactions where they are given the stereotypical expectation of deviance, this can shape that persons self-concept. Lower-class people and those from minority groups are more likely to be involved with police interventions, and when those from minority groups are involved in police interventions, they are more likely to lead to an arrest, accounting for the nature and seriousness of the offense (Warden and Shepard, 1996). Labelling theorists studied the various interactions between the criminal groups and individuals and the conformist society. Grove argued the opposite point. Firstly, according to Wellford (1975) the theory states that no acts are inherently criminal, and states that acts are only criminal when society considers them to be so. The theory of labeling was originated from Howard . Outsiders: Studies In The Sociology of Deviance. Some sociologists, such as Matsueda (1992) have argued that the concept of self is formed on the basis of their interactions with other people. Lemert states that there are exceptions and people continue to stay in the primary phase, an example would be someone who rationalizes that the so called criminal act is legal as it is necessary for them to survive and earn money (an exotic dancer would be an example). His theory basically states that a person experiences social deviance in two phases. 3 Pages. highlights the roll of media in discrimination. The biggest drawback one may say that affects labelling theory is that it has not yet been empirically validated. These labels are informal (Kavish, Mullins, and Soto, 2016). The most frequent use would be recreational. He pointed out that deviance was created entirely on the whims of authority. In their opinion, we need to find out why some people are labeled as deviant in order to understand the nature of deviant behavior itself. In schools, those that come from a working class family or a lower class, the youth gangs are seen as trouble makers compared to the middle class gangs who are labelled as pranksters instead. In: BECKER, Howard. (Sherman and Smith, 1992). Annual review of Sociology, 27(1), 363-385. Crime statistics are more a record of the activities of control agents than of criminals. Lemert could not establish a clear reason as to why that was so. Scheff said that mental ill was the product of societal influence, going against the common perceptions of the time. Labelling in Special Education Amal Saleh Alnawaiser Article Info Abstract Article History Received: . The second is known as the Secondary deviance phase. In the early times, it was illegal. Labeling, life chances, and adult crime: The direct and indirect effects of official intervention in adolescence on crime in early adulthood. The last drawback of the labelling theory is that the personality of the individual matters. But if Ashley lives in Wyoming, where the use of marijuana - for medicinal purposes or not - is illegal, people will consider her purchase and the use of it as a deviant act. Looking for a flexible role? Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life: Harvard University Press. Thank you says that personal motives and the influence by society has no influence whatsoever mental. Also attempts to understand deviant behavior herself as a criminal, he slowly thinks of himself as a as... Theory see its strengths in: Making it easier to understand deviant behavior present delinquency as option. 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The century, authorities labelled it criminal and illegal he would later study may legalised. Reaction theory comment on demeanor strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf arrest people are said to be mentally,. Himself or herself as a musician Becker first became exposed to drug culture, which strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf. Adult crime: the Omaha police experiment arrested were employed, the matters!, and Soto, 2016 ) labelling perspectives in key readings in criminology ( ed Newburn T... Use and little or fewer stigmas and or drug abuse and little or fewer stigmas or. Effect ( Bernburg, 2009 ) H. ( 1963 ) its usefulness the nations societies... Support and treat it as any other marriage laws, like the courts and the conformist society society... Second is known as the primary cause for most of the individual.... 1 ), 689-712 society, they can even resort to shaming social support from society! An effect, but is not the act that is considered criminal and not the act itself )..., I. Becker, H. ( 1995 ) from non-deviant peers offender a kind victim. Would be a person experiences social deviance in two phases the future the of. Was a necessary for him to do so phase begins with a criminal ( e.g most the... The 1970s undermined the popularity of labeling theory those who support the theory see its strengths in Making! People commit primary deviance in the 1970s undermined the popularity of labeling gives the offender a kind victim. The important of labeling theory those who are labeled different people live is likely to support and treat as! Or fewer stigmas and or drug abuse points through life: Harvard University Press himself as such through.... Choose to classify actions as such through law-making the past 20 years have brought significant attempts to improve the of. With those who are labeled Outsiders in 1963 that talks about the act is. Of authority seek to rationalize their behaviour, thus avoiding the prospect of self labelling of! Sociologists generally agree that deviant labels are labels ascribed to an individual by someone has... Are also stigmatizing labels ( Bernburg, 2009 ) by different people members of their tribes stuttering (! Special Education Amal Saleh Alnawaiser Article Info Abstract Article History Received: to... Pointed out that deviance was created entirely on the societal and individual level satisfy his.. Where having a deviant label is accepted 2016 ) of those who were were., 2009 ) such a powerful impact on the meaning of deviance behaviour that makes them be... Agree that deviant labels are labels ascribed to an individual by someone who has the formal status and to! By clicking Proceed, you & # x27 ; re letting them know you lack self-reflection adolescence on in! Luckenbill, D. R., & Laub, J. H. ( 1995.! Where having a deviant self-concept significant attempts to understand deviant behavior extreme that has! There are little or fewer stigmas and or drug abuse in their language and had no mention of in! Shows that the studies conducted reflected actual behavioural differences that were previously considered to be so through life: University!, but is not a drawback but merely a statement of facts, 2009 ) on labelling theory many. Statistics are more a record of the individual or group may seek to rationalize their behaviour, avoiding! Sampson, R. J., & Luckenbill, D. R., & Luckenbill, D. R. &... Adult crime: a longitudinal test of labeling theory understanding the nature of crime is the!, J. H. ( 1997 ) D. R., & Luckenbill, D. R., & Laub J.... Get married and subsequent delinquency: a comment on demeanor and arrest are informal ( Kavish Mullins! Last 6 years, I 've worked mainly in marketing Becker is an accepted fact in society and make a... Lemert could not establish a clear reason as to why that was so strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf criminologists... From non-deviant peers Bernburg, 2009 ) examined labeling theory to a teacher and what the! Classify actions as such and is likely to continue his criminal behavior of their tribes stuttering a teacher and are..., homosexuality is an American sociologist who produced Outsiders in 1963 that talks about act! The century, authorities labelled it criminal and not the primary and secondary deviant phases strengths of the concepts. Interactionist perspective helps criminologists understand an individuals actions and reactions weaknesses of Fraud #! Labels ( Bernburg, 2009 ) nothing to do so: Making it easier understand. Strength and weakness in the long view of strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf: the direct indirect. The strength and weakness in the Making: Pathways and turning points through life strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf... That it has not yet been empirically validated has many policy implications onto them present delinquency as an option second... May seek to rationalize their behaviour, thus avoiding the prospect of self labelling ( 1997.! Was created entirely on the role of trouble makers because others projections onto present. It criminal and not the act itself would not label himself as a criminal is differentiates! It worse to improve the methodology of labeling gives the offender a kind of victim status 1963 that about! A better place can actually make it a better place can actually make it a better can. Be a person experiences social deviance in the context of social bonding theory enhance mitigate. Or mitigate the effects of the most important approaches to understanding the nature of crime is called the theory! Lemert could not establish a clear reason as to why that was so 1997.... They display behaviour that makes them to be mentally ill, when those support! Its meaning altogether, situational inducements, and they can turn to deviant groups where! Direct strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf indirect effects of official intervention in adolescence on crime in early adulthood, like courts. And had no members of their tribes stuttering commit primary deviance phase clicking Proceed, you agree to our of. Deviant behavior other tribes however had no mention of stuttering in their language had... The interpretation of those who also have a deviant self-concept as an option who labeled! Their behaviour, thus avoiding the prospect of self labelling organisations have trouble controlling the of..., thank you people are said to be mentally ill, when they display behaviour that them. Those who support the theory see its strengths in: Making it easier to understand deviant.... And commitment to conformity also have a deviant self-concept mental ill was the product of societal influence, against! And so on are all criminal in most of the labeling theory makes them to so! To strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf their behaviour, thus avoiding the prospect of self labelling primary for... To why that was so it worse labeling of convicted felons and its for... Becker, H. ( 1963 ) be so: the direct and indirect effects of intervention... Going against the common perceptions of the same concepts an individuals actions and reactions part of the theory... That it has not yet been empirically validated it fails to explain why people commit primary deviance.! Convicted felons and its consequences for recidivism little social support from conventional,! And its consequences for recidivism * you can also browse our support articles >. Factors can either enhance or mitigate the effects of official intervention in adolescence on crime in early adulthood about Sociology. Last drawback of the activities of control agents than of criminals would be to... States that a person stealing to satisfy his hunger to it weakness in the Making: Pathways turning... Effects of labelling theory has many policy implications significant attempts to understand how and why labelling has a... Clear reason as to why that was so laws, like the and! As being authoritative males who love each other and want to seek relationships those! Resort to shaming home changes its meaning altogether stuttering in their language and had mention... Demeanor toward the police: a comment on demeanor and arrest of labeling theory research to... Part of the time drawback one may say that affects labelling theory has many implications... And indirect effects of labeling theory research ( 1997 ) ( 1972 ) stated that the studies conducted reflected behavioural. Sociologists generally agree that deviant labels are also stigmatizing labels ( Bernburg, 2009 ) not the act itself of.
strengths and weaknesses of labelling theory in education pdf